The genetics of vitamin D.

Vitamin D plays an essential role in human health as it influences immune function, cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Vitamin D deficiency has been associated with numerous health outcomes, including bone disease, cancer, autoimmune disease, cardiovascular conditions and more. However, the causal role of vitamin D beyond its importance for bone health remains unclear and is under much debate. Twin and familial studies from past decades have demonstrated a nontrivial heritability of circulating vitamin D concentrations. Several large-scale genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have discovered associations of GC, NADSYN1/DHCR7, CYP2R1, CYP24A1, SEC23A, AMDHD1 with serum levels of vitamin D. A recent whole genome sequencing (WGS) study, combined with deep imputation of genome-wide genotyping, has identified a low-frequency synonymous coding variant at CYP2R1. Information on these genetic variants can be used as tools for downstream analysis such as Mendelian randomization. Here, we review the genetic determinants of circulating vitamin D levels by focusing on new findings from GWAS and WGS, as well as results from Mendelian randomization analyses conducted so far for vitamin D with various traits and diseases. The amount of variation in vitamin D explained by genetics is still small, and the putative causal relationship between vitamin D and other diseases remains to be demonstrated.